An Early Helladic Ii Period Submerged Cultural Resource Found in Dokos, Greece Essay Example

An Early Helladic Ii Period Submerged Cultural Resource Found in Dokos, Greece Essay Underwater Archaeology MARS 3360-001 Professor William C. Phoel April 29, 2010 Chryso Tsikkou Title: An Early Helladic II Period Submerged Cultural Resource Found in Dokos, Greece. 1. ABSTRACT The Hellenic Institute of Marine Archaeology (HIMA) has undertaken several significant projects. Among them, the most important is the one at Dokos (1988-1992). The Early Helladic shipwreck of Dokos, sometimes cited as the earliest known wreck, was the first systematic and efficient full-scale investigation of an ancient shipwreck to be conducted in Greece. The rich ceramic finds (raised among 10,000 objects) dating to the Early Helladic II period are judged to be particularly important both for their large size and type variety, and also in that they represent the largest closed group of Early Helladic ceramic ware found to date in the Aegean. 2. A BRIEF HISTORY OF UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGY IN GREECE. Figure [ 1 ]: Ancient remains found in underwater excavations of various submerged cultural resources. The possibilities of underwater archaeology in Greece were appreciated relatively early by Greek archaeologists. In 1884, Keeper of Antiquities Christos Tsoudas, with the help of sponge divers, concluded the first methodical underwater survey in the channel between the island of Salamis and Attica. Yet, it was not archaeologists that raised some of the Ancient World’s few surviving masterpieces; it was ordinary fishermen and sponge divers. Some of these works of art include the Poseidon of Kreusis found in the Gulf of Corinth (1889), the Boy or Ephebe of Marathon (1925) extricated by Evangelos Leonidas from his fishing nets, the Poseidon (or Zeus), and the Jockey of Cape Artemision (1928, see Fig. ). Nevertheless, the field of underwater archaeology continued to develop in Greece over the past century and finally reached the point in 1996 where Nikos Tsouchlos, then director of the Hellenic Institute of Marine Archaeology (HIMA), could state that â€Å"in Greece underwater archaeology has now finally established its place in the archaeological field† (1). 3. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ABOUT THE ISLAND AND THE SHIPWRECK IN DOKOS, GREECE. We will write a custom essay sample on An Early Helladic Ii Period Submerged Cultural Resource Found in Dokos, Greece specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on An Early Helladic Ii Period Submerged Cultural Resource Found in Dokos, Greece specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on An Early Helladic Ii Period Submerged Cultural Resource Found in Dokos, Greece specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer According to the Hellenic History of Marine Archaeology, â€Å"the underwater archaeological excavation at Dokos, carried out by the Hellenic Institute of Marine Archaeology from 1989 to 1992 under the direction of the archaeologist George Papathanasopoulos, was the first full scale excavation of an ancient wreck in Greece which also employed the most up-to-date technological methods of the time. † The underwater site of Dokos is the most valuable concrete evidence for navigation, sea trade, technology, and the economy in the Aegean during the late 3rd millennium BC (3). The website of Hellenic Institute of Marine Archaeology also states that, â€Å"the island of Dokos owes its name to the Dokos family of Hydriot ship owners, to whom it belonged at the end of the 18th century. In antiquity it was called Aperopia, a name perhaps meaning â€Å"the mountain island. † It is in fact craggy and precipitous, with few natural springs. Its highly important geographical location, however, at the entrance to the Argolic Gulf and on the sea route to and from the coasts of Argolida and Lakonia attracted the interest of mariners from early on† (3). The Hellenic Institute of Marine Archaeology continues by stating that, â€Å"[Dokos] was colonized from the end of the Neolithic period (4th millennium BC), but human presence on the island augmented during the Early Helladic period (2500-2300/2200 BC), when sea trade developed. After that time it vanished from the record for a long period of history, becoming the territory of fishermen and shepherds. In times of trouble, however, its role was upgraded because of its position and fortified character. During the 13th century BC, the powerful settlements of Myti Kommeni and Ledeza grew up. In the middle of the 7th century AD an actual castle town was formed in the district of the Kastro, and at the time of the national uprising in 1821 the island was used as a naval station for the Hydriot fleet† (3). After Independence, Dokos passed into the possession of different Hydriot families. 4. LOCATION AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE WRECK – RECONNAISSANCE SURVEYS. In the summer of 1975, Peter Throckmorton, a diver and an investigator of sea bottoms detected a great number of pottery at a depth of 20 meters at the seabed around the island of Dokos (3, see Fig. 9 and 10). Soon afterwards, Throckmorton, having communicated the information to the Greek Archaeological Service, returned to the island accompanied by the Greek archaeologist Georgios Papathanasopoulos, who examined the pottery, dated it in the Early Helladic period and recommended that it was a shipwreck probably around 2200 BC. Soon after, in 1975 and 1977, they carried out two investigating surveys, which resulted to a more precise dating: according to the Hellenic Institute of Marine Archaeology, â€Å"the shipwreck could be located to the Early Helladic II period, which means around 2700-2200/2100, BC† (3). During the same survey, the two archaeologists had defined the area of the shipwreck at a depth of 15 to 30 meters and found out that it was the most ancient wreck discovered worldwide ever since (3). Figure [ 2 ]: Map displaying where Dokos is located. A methodical excavation of the site started in the summer of 1989 by the Institute of Marine Archaeological Surveys of Greece when government restrictions were lifted and adequate funds were accessible. The excavation was under the direction of the archaeologist Georgios Papathanasopoulos. The entire process of excavation was completed in 1992, and the finds were kept in a special space of the Museum of Spetses (3). The shipwreck of Dokos signifies one of the most essential verifications for prehistoric navigation and the growth and expansion of marine trade. It also offered tremendously significant information about the level of technology during the Bronze Age and about the economy and exchange in the Aegean in late 3rd millennium BC. The pottery exposed from the sea bottom represented the shipload of a merchant ship and would be transported to an unknown destination. The pottery of the ship substantiates for the high level of technology during that period of time. There have been found vessels of diverse kinds, along with objects of everyday use, which bear a resemblance to those already found in the excavations of the coastal Early Helladic colonies of Lerna and of Tiryns, as well as in other settlements of the general Argolida region. The survey of the shipwreck has supplemented a great deal of information to the land surveys of the Early Helladic civilization and made scholars appreciate and recognize better the marine transportation and communication processes in the Myrtoan Sea and in the Saronicos Bay (6, see Fig. 2). 5. Figure [ 3 ]: Amphorae found on board. STUDY AND RECOVERY OF THE ARTIFACTS. The online database of Underwater Archaeology had published a journal article regarding the cargo found in Dokos, Greece. In this section of the paper, I will summarize what the article acknowledged. The pottery from the Dokos cargo site, which all emerged to belong to a late phase of Early Helladic II period, includes all the fundamental Early Helladic II period types and styles identified from several land sites as well as various kinds of household utensils. The commonest forms of artifacts found were bowls, sauceboats, basins, wide-mouthed jars with plastic bands, and amphoras (see Fig. 3); utensils included spit-supports†, braziers, and baking trays. An appealing feature of the pottery studied from the 1989 and 1990 campaigns was the presence of Cycladic elements; this validates the primary impression created of the pottery at the time of the discovery of the cargo in 1975. The three commonest shapes are bowls, sauceboats and amphoras, which are characterized by many dozens of sherds; the first two are the commonest Early Helladic II period types in southern and central Greece and on the islands of the Saronic and Argolic gulfs (3). In the course of reconnaissance dives made in 1989 west of the main site, two stone slabs were found, each with a perforation near its edge. The first, which is roughly triangular in shape, was at a depth of 34 meters and some 33 meters west of point 8 on the perimeter of the wreck. It was lying rather close to the shore on a rocky bottom with patches of sand. The second, nearly circular in shape, was found at a depth of 38 meters, 46 meters west of point 8 on the wreck perimeter and 14 meters southwest of the first slab and on a similar bottom. When the two pieces were found, they were lodged among the rocks with their perforations topmost and indicating eastward in the direction of the wreck. Both slabs were photographed in situ and their positions were set by calculating their distances from different points on the perimeter of the main site and from each other. Before they were elevated up to the surface, archaeologists conducted an experiment: ropes were secured to the holes and two people standing on the diving raft positioned over the middle of the site attempted to haul in the slabs. They found that it took a large effort by the two people just to shift the slabs from their location. Subsequently, they tried to pull them up, and the two team members stationed a boat directly over the two slabs and hauled first on one and then on the other one. That time required less exertion to move the slabs, but still called for a considerable effort. The initial observations made at the time the slabs were found and the consequent examination of them after they were raised both propose that they were in all probability Early Age Bronze stone anchors and directly related with the Dokos underwater site (7). The shapes of the stone slabs, their weight, the location of the holes, and the method used to drill them were all distinctive attributes of Bronze Age anchors. The fact that they each have only one hole for the anchor rope, as well as their somewhat slight weight, the nature of the bottom where they were found and their positions on the seabed were all indications that they were anchors planned for use on rocky bottoms; they were in fact characteristic Early Bronze Age anchors. All these facts, in addition to the breaks and edge damage which were apparent evidence of their frequent use, exclude the likelihood that they were weights used by divers. Stones used as diving weights were usually left on the bottom after the dive, and in any case did not undergo the kind of wear and tear that would cause that kind of damage (7). Bearing in mind their distances from the site of the cargo and their locations to the west of it, it was not irrational to recommend that they probably belonged to the Early Helladic II period shipwreck discovered in Dokos. The rationale was that if the vessel was anchored in approximately the position of the wreck site and were caught by a strong westerly wind, which is the only thing that seriously agitates the sea in the little bay of Skindos, and if it then broke up on the rocky shore and sank, its anchors would have been in just about the same positions as those two: that is, approximately 40 meters west of the bottom site and with the holes for the anchor ropes orientated in its direction. The number, size, and particularly the weight of the anchors suggest that they belonged to a moderately small vessel of perhaps 5 to 10 tons and 12 to 15 meters in length. This surpasses an earlier estimate of the vessels size, which was based on the relatively large cargo it seemed to have been carrying. 6. EQUIPMENT USED, MAPPING DESCRIPTIONS, AND CONSERVATION-PRESERVATION OF THE ARTIFACTS. The Hellenic Institute of Marine Archaeology engaged in an intensive conservation campaign in their lab constructed at the Museum of Spetses (see Fig. 8). Due to the amount of finds in need of treatment, with the addition of the lack of funds and manpower, the work had been slow, but consistent. To increase productivity, all the finds were logged into a computer for easy referencing and research (8). Due to the impracticability of using the conventional grid and survey method, mainly because of the steep gradients and abnormality of the seabed in the area of the excavation, HIMA turned to a new system, the Sonic High Accuracy Ranging and Positioning System, for mapping and plotting the positions of finds underwater. Known as SHARPS, the system was designed by scientists of the Institute of Nautical Archaeology (INA) for use in underwater excavations, mapping, and plotting positions of finds on the seabed by employing an echo system for fixing the three-dimensional position of a point. The system consists basically of four transmitters-receivers, a control unit, and a computer with at least 640k of RAM, a hard disk, the 8087 mathematics processor, and a graphic screen. The transmitter-receivers are linked to the control unit and then to the computer by cables of up to 300 meters in length. Three of the transmitter-receivers are situated firmly on the seabed at a maximum distance of 100 meters from each other so as to form a triangle. They act as receivers for the sound pulses transmitted at a permanent rate by the process of a trigger; the latter allows the diver to decide and manage the frequency and duration of the transmission. This transmitter is moved by the diver to the different points with a measured precision in the order of two centimeters at 100 meters. The triangular grid employed is defined by measuring the distances between the three receivers A, B, and C on the inclined plane bounded by the lines joining each pair of vertexes, namely AB, BC, CA, and the depths hA, hB, and hC. The position of the transmitter (trigger) in relation to the three receivers is established in the same way both horizontally and vertically: the receivers gather the transmitted signals and send them to the control unit, and the distance of the transmitter from each receiver is calculated from the time taken for the signal to be received. The three distances and the three depths are used to calculate the coordinates of the transmitter in the three dimensions x, y, and z in an arbitrary system of reference defined by the receivers, the calculations are based on the mathematical relationships resulting from the triangular grid and on the speed of the sound pulse through the water (2). Figure [ 4 ]: Divers working on the Dokos shipwreck trying to retrieve artifacts. In addition to the SHARPS system, a widespread photographic documentation was compiled. All phases of the excavation were photographed, from the set-up of the installations on land and in the sea to marked feature finds while still in place, after being raised, and before and after conservation work. To make a photographic plan of the site and the main bulk of the finds on the bottom, a stereophotographic frame was used. It enabled the archaeologists, after the photographs had been correctly connected, to assemble a simple photomosaic of the underwater site, and the same photographs were used for photogrammetry, to make a precise scale plan of the site. The photomosaic is made up of partially overlapping photographs taken with a succession of exposures from the frame’s first position. The stereographic frame was designed and used mainly by the president of the Hellenic Institute of Marine Archaeology, Nikos Tsouchlos, while the underwater photography of the work on the bottom and individual finds in situ were photographed by Kyle Jachney (2). In general, pottery survives well in marine environments and requires only minimal handling after recovery. It is necessary, however, that the conservator be able to distinguish earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain, and to be familiar with the alternative treatments for conserving them (9). Stoneware and porcelain are fired at such high temperatures that they are impervious to liquids and thus do not take up soluble salts from their archaeological environment; therefore, it is not necessary to take them through long rinses to remove soluble salts. However, with certain kinds of stoneware and porcelain, glazes are applied in consequent firings, and sometimes salts may be accumulated between the glaze and the body. If these salts are not removed, the glaze may flake off. Consequently, a gigantic caution must be exercised with stoneware and porcelain. Well-fired pottery require only to be rinsed in a mild detergent and the edges and surfaces scrubbed with a soft brush. Care should be taken not to remove traces of food, paint, pigments, or soot that is left on the interior or exterior surfaces. The conservator must be careful not to mark the pottery surface when using a brush or any other object throughout preservation and conservation (see Fig. ). Fragile, poorly fired pottery require more care, but the procedure is the same. Fragile pieces, pottery with friable surfaces, flaking surfaces, or fugitive paints may necessitate consolidation with a resin (8). Earthenware excavated from marine sites become saturated with soluble salts, and/or the surfaces often become covered with insoluble salts, such as calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate. In many instances, pottery adjacent to metal objects, mos tly iron objects, will be enclosed by the encrustation forming around the metal. Soluble salts (chlorides, phosphates, and nitrates) are potentially most hazardous to the integrity of pottery, and they must be removed in order for the object to be stable. The soluble salts are hygroscopic, and as the relative humidity rises and falls, the salts constantly dissolve and crystallize. These salts ultimately reach the surface of the pot, where extensive crystallization takes place causing exfoliation of the surface of the pot. Eventually, the pot will break as a result of internal stresses. At times, masses of needle-like crystals may cover the surface, hiding all details. Soluble salts can be removed by repeated rinsing in water (a running bath is the quickest and most effective method but is very wasteful). There are many ways of setting up a series of vats so that water runs into one vat and cascades into a series of other vats. This minimizes water waste, particularly if using de-ionized water. Very simple rinsing procedures exist, such as putting soluble, salt-laden sherds in a mesh bag and placing the bag in the reservoir of a toilet. Countless volunteers help out every day in altering the water and the salt content in the sherds equalize with that contained in the supply water. Then, if necessary, the rinsing can be continued in several baths of de-ionized water to lower the salt content even further. This is a simple trick that is very efficient. Monitor the rinsing progress with a conductivity meter. If sherds or pottery are too fragile to withstand the rinsing process, surfaces may be consolidated first with Acryloid B-72 then rinsed. Since Acryloid B-72 is somewhat water-permeable, it will permit the salts to diffuse out, although significantly more gradually than in non-consolidated material (7). In most cases, the safest and most satisfactory technique of removing insoluble salts from the surface of pottery is by hand. Most calcareous concretions can be removed without difficulty when wet by scraping with a scalpel, dental tool, or an analogous appliance. Dental burrs and pneumatic air chisels are also quite useful. The insoluble salts may also be removed chemically, but it is important to pre-wet the sherd. Nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, and oxalic acid are most commonly used. Before using any acid on pottery, however, make sure that the paste is thoroughly wetted so that the acid will not be absorbed. Although 10 to 20 percent of nitric acid can be used to remove calcareous concretions, it is potentially the most damaging acid of the three. More care should be implemented in its use, as dilute nitric acid will dissolve lead glazes. In most cases, 10 to 20 percent hydrochloric acid is safer than nitric acid to clean glazed pottery. The sherds are left immersed in the acid until all gas evolution comes to an end (usually less than an hour); this procedure may be repeated if required. Care must be exercised, since hydrochloric acid can discolor glazes, especially lead glazes, which will turn milky. The samples are then washed thoroughly in tap water and, if needed, immersed in a 10 percent oxalic acid for 10 to 20 hours to eliminate iron stains. A systematic rinsing should follow, and the sherds should be dried. It is crucial that pottery with a carbonate temper (shell, calcium carbonate) not to be submerged in hydrochloric or nitric acid because the tempering material will be removed from the paste, resulting in the weakening of the pottery (2). While nitric, oxalic, and hydrochloric acid treatments will remove calcareous deposits (especially hydrochloric), they are inclined to dissolve the iron oxides from pottery containing iron oxides in the paste or in the glazes (many stoneware glazes contain iron oxides). The use of these acids on glazes containing iron oxides intensifies their tendency to exfoliate, in particular if the glazes are friable. To avoid over-cleaning, the sherds should always be pre-wetted by soaking in water and then by applying the acid locally on the surfaces with a cotton swab or by drops. The excess acid is directly removed when the effervescing action stops, either by wiping the area or rinsing the object(s) under running water to remove the acid. Earthenware and terra cotta often contain iron oxides, are more porous, and thus more prone to deteriorate when treated with these acids; acid treatments should be used on such materials with good judgment and carefulness (9). A helpful chemical for eliminating calcareous deposits from ceramics is ethylene-diaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA). A 5 percent solution of the tetra-sodium salts of EDTA (pH 11. 5) works best for removing calcareous aterial without critically affecting the iron content of the pottery. Iron is more soluble at pH 4, while calcareous deposits are more soluble at pH 13. In this treatment, the sherds are immersed in the solution and left until the deposits are removed. Sporadically, the solution may have to be replenished. During the process, the iron stains that are usually bound in with the calcium salts a re removed along with the calcium. It is a slow but successful treatment. Soaking calcareous-encrusted sherds in a 5 percent aqueous solution of sodium hexametaphosphate has been used to remove calcareous deposits. Care must be taken, however, since a solution of sodium hexametaphosphate has a tendency to soften the paste of the sherd more readily than the calcareous encrustation. Silicates on the surface of pottery can be removed with hydrofluoric acid, but this acid is extremely hazardous, and it is not recommended to be used by amateurs (2). The conservation of ceramics recovered from a marine site is not complex. When pieces are found encrusted, the most complicated part of the conservation procedure is the removal of the adhering material without any possible destruction of the paste or glaze. For this motive, mechanical cleaning techniques are favored, but hydrochloric acid is used with some reliability to remove calcareous encrustations. The soluble salts that are perpetually present in any porous material recovered from a marine site are removed by rinsing in water. In most instances, tap water is all that is needed, but to the use of de-ionized water in the final baths will remove more soluble salts. Sulfide staining is easily removed with hydrogen peroxide, but other stains, such as iron stains, are more difficult to remove without negatively affecting the material. If the decision is made to remove the more complicated stains, the material should be methodically wetted with water before immersing or applying the proper chemicals. Supervising the progression of the process cautiously and careful washing of the hands in running water after using any chemicals are recommended (2). After treatment, permit the pottery to air dry. Solvent drying is not obligatory, but it may be used if preferred. After drying, consolidate by entirely immersing the material in a dilute solution of PVA or Acryloid. Pottery vessels can be reconstructed after the consolidated sherds have dried. Apparatus required to preserve and conserve ceramics includes properly sized vats, tap water, de-ionized water, acetone, ethanol, PVA, Acryloid, hydrogen peroxide, hydrochloric acid, EDTA, dental picks, and pneumatic chisels (2). Figure [ 5 ]: Archaeologists working on the artifacts found on the wreck. Little items made of stone can be handled in basically the same approach as described for pottery (once pottery has been fired, it is actually a form of stone). Numerous sedimentary rocks can absorb soluble salts and be stained. The same treatments and chemicals described under pottery were used, but the acids should be no stronger than 5 percent. The usage of some acids on any of the sedimentary rocks (e. g. , limestone, marble, sandstone, etc. ) will be tremendously unsafe as these can be quickly destroyed by acid treatments. The acids can be used effectively on metamorphic and igneous rocks (7). Figure [ 6 ]: Pithoi found on the shipwreck. Upon early assessment of pottery and other surface finds, the site was dated to circa 2200 BC, or the Early Helladic II period, comprising the largest closed body of materials from the Early Helladic period (4). The clay vases were estimated to number more than 500, including most known Early Helladic pottery types. They consist of many of the deep spouted sauceboats in a mixture of shapes and sizes, as well as cutaway jugs, shallow and deep bowls. Furthermore, in a variety of shapes and sizes there were amphorae, plates, cups, jars, askoi (type of pottery) and pithoi (large storage jars of a certain type, see Fig. ), and household utensils and grinders. An examination of the pottery and an inspection of the many sauceboats propose that the types are similar to those from Askitario in Attica, and the sauceboats compare to those from Lerna in the Argolid, Lithares in Boeotia, and from Cyclades (8). After a thorough examination of the origin of the pottery, archaeologists concluded tha t the shipwreck lied directly on the maritime trade route from South Euboea to the Saronic and Argolid gulfs, ending at the Early Helladic center of Lerna (9). The significance of the wreck is enhanced by other finds: two fragments of the same lead bar pointed to an Attic provenance for the pottery for it is recognized that the ore was being mined at Lavrion in the Early Helladic period. Additionally, the two primitive stone anchors that were found at a distance of 40 meters from the wreck and in deeper water, were accurately on the line the ship would have taken after entering the bay. The anchors may have been dropped by the Early Helladic ship just before it sank (5). The thousands of obsidian blades, essentially from Milos, that have been found at every Neolithic and Early Helladic site in Greece, on the mainland and the islands, are clear verifications of trade by sea in the distance past (7000-2000 BC). As a consequence, the cargo of the Early Helladic ship that was wrecked by the entrance to the small bay on the island of Dokos is considered tangible evidence of sea trade in Greece, and one of the oldest seafaring documents so far to come into sight from the bottom of the Aegean (3). 7. EXHIBITION, PUBLICATION, AND PRESENTATION. Figure [ 7 ]: The sign of ENALIA, a specialized journal. Since 1989, the Hellenic Institute of Marine Archaeology publishes ENALIA, the only specialized journal in underwater and nautical archaeology in Greece (see Fig. 7), which is widely appreciated both in Greece and abroad. The shipwreck of Dokos is incorporated in the publications, and HIMAs work at the Dokos wreck made it all too clear that there was virtually no infrastructure in Greece for anyone wishing to carry out marine archaeological research. This prompted archaeologists to carry out an architectural study at the Athens Polytechnic School to explore the possibilities of building a marine archaeology center. This proposal had the advantage of being based on very real coordinates with very specific functions to fulfill. Nevertheless, the proposed site of Dokos (specifically, at Myti Kommeni in the Bay of Skindos), with its wealthy contribution of marine and land archaeological sites round about, portrays the architect with considerable challenges: the land is rough and inaccessible, and there are no modern facilities close at hand (3). Additionally, The Danish Institute at Athens offered a presentation of The work of the Hellenic Institute of Marine Archaeology, 2005 – 2008. Presentations on underwater surveys and excavations included the following projects: 1. Southern Salamis by Yannos G. Lolos, in English 2. Pagasetikos Gulf by Elias Spondylis, in Greek 3. Argosaronic Gulf by Christos S. Agouridis, in English 4. Southern Euboean Gulf by George Koutsouflakis, in English Integrated in the presentation was the ancient shipwreck found in Dokos, Greece. It fell in the category of Argosaronic Gulf by Christos S. Agouridis (3). 8. GENERAL CONCLUSION The vast amount of Early Helladic II pottery from the Dokos cargo site is imperative not only for the diversity of its types and sizes, but chiefly because it comprises the only possible closed find of this nature with Early Helladic II pottery thus far known from the Aegean (4). The Late Helladic sherds, the teeth and bone fragments were primarily found together with the Early Helladic sherds in the lower levels of the second trial channel. They cannot, however, be considered as a part of the large closed find of pottery, which for the most part came from the surface level of the site, but rather as rejected pieces of pottery from the land; this is only to be anticipated in a place that has been used as a natural harbor from prehistoric times to the present day (4 and 5). On the basis of the conclusions achieved so far it appears that the great mass of Early Helladic II pottery recovered from the underwater site at Myti Kommeni on Dokos was part of the cargo of one or more Early Helladic ships that foundered, capsized or abandoned their load in that bay (6). The bay shaped a natural harbor, which would no doubt have always been the scene of much action and movement due to the settlement, probably a trading station, on the Myti Kommeni peninsula during the Early Helladic period (3rd millennium BC).

Domestic tourism in India Essays

Domestic tourism in India Essays Domestic tourism in India Essay Domestic tourism in India Essay Methodology Introduction This chapter is really indispensable in enabling the research worker achieve purposes and aims of this thesis. So first lay down the cardinal purpose followed by its aims. Then go through understanding what research is and discourse the different types of research methods that are used in this survey. For case treatment is carried out on the assorted accessed secondary research informations and primary research informations aggregation method by looking at quantitative research method of study questionnaire and warranting the pick of choice of the research method. The accent on questionnaire design and layout will be considered alongside projecting the significance of pilot proving before the questionnaire is distributed. The chapter besides illuminate on substantiate sampling and selected computing machine package for informations analysis. And eventually portray the assorted research restrictions. Aim and Aims Aim of this research is to happen out the motivational factors behind domestic touristry in India. And in order to accomplish the purpose it is of import to carry through the assorted aims of this research which are: To analyze the several motivational and consumer behavior surveies within the context of the touristry industry. Analyzing the tendencies of domestic touristry in India. To analyze the motivational factors/ perceptual experiences and attitudes towards domestic touristry in Mumbai metropolis in India. To compare and contrast the motivational factors underpinning domestic touristry identified within the literature, with those identified by the primary informations analysis for India. To analyze the deductions of the findings of this research for the hereafter of domestic touristry activity in India. Now holding looked at the purpose of the research and its aims, it is necessary to distinguish the salient characteristics of the secondary research informations with that of the primary research as they form to assist analyze the result of this research findings. Secondary Research Secondary research informations is aggregation of work that is done and published by some research worker which is available for others research workers to utilize in their survey ( Jennings, 2001 ) . Hakim ( 1982 ) defined secondary research as farther analysis of an bing dataset which presents readings, decisions, or knowledge extra to, or different from, those presented in the first study on the enquiry as a whole and its chief consequences . Secondary information is really of import prior to traveling into primary informations as one can avoid repeat of the same informations so as to traverse cheque and see to it that the information that is being collected is non already available in secondary resource ( Finn et al 2000 ) . The beginnings of secondary informations can be collected from assorted beginnings with advice from the concerned topic professor and librarian along with the aid of cyberspace, schoolmates and bibliographies of the literature that is read in assorted begin nings like books, diaries etc ( Silverman, 2005 ) . As Jennings ( 2001 ) besides pointed out the cardinal advantages of secondary informations aggregation which consisted of: Easy and speedy handiness to the available information. Quality of informations acquired is of high criterion when cross referred from equal beginnings. Information is gathered for a really low cost. Less clip devouring procedure. Provides the chance to re-examine the findings. Using the information is convenient. The secondary informations used in this survey was obtained from assorted resources affiliated and available through the Bournemouth University library catalogue. So as to stand for merely reliable informations in my survey I have used tried to mention and utilize largely work and surveies done by reputed writers or administrations. The information that has been obtained are of beginnings runing from: Books: All the books referred were from the Bournemouth University library and some of which were vitamin Es books available on cyberspace. The books referred ranged from subject covering touristry, consumer behavior, psychological science, and motive and research methods. Academic Diaries: Diaries showcasing several articles published of most recent and reliable information was accessed and utilized which were largely derived through assorted on-line diaries like Sage publications, EBSCO host, Science Direct from Athens database. Published paperss and studies: Datas derived from several studies published by administrations like WTO, Ministry of Tourism ( India ) , Indian Government publications were utilised in back uping my survey. Internet and electronic database: While utilizing the cyberspace beginning the fact of reliable dependability was extremely regarded and therefore really few information was utilised through cyberspace. Most of the informations utilised was obtained from electronic informations beginning on topics associating to touristry and motive which was once more acquired with the aid of Athens Database. But it is besides really indispensable that one realise the menace lying in using secondary informations for case Jennings ( 2001 ) revealed some issues associating disadvantages like uncomplete available informations, the dependability factor, and verification on cogency of information or the information might go out of day of the month. So being cognizant of the reverses of secondary informations was keenly observed while using it for the survey and was merely used in back uping and steering to understand the literature behind the subject. Primary Research Primary informations is the information that is gathered from the field of research carried out and developed by a research worker for their ain research ( Burns and Bush, 2000 ) . Cohen et Al ( 2007 ) described primary beginning to be points holding direct relationship with Reconstruction of events which comprise of unwritten and written testimony collected from the participants. Jennings ( 2001 ) pointed out the possible benefits of primary informations prevarication in the easiness of analyzing a big population analysis with out much prejudice. And there are two major methods of carry oning a primary research that are quantitative and qualitative research methods. Quantitative and Qualitative Research Researchers gather first manus information through assorted methods, so collect and set up them in order and so analyze them to utilize in their survey. This is popularly known as primary research and hence to carryout that it is really necessary for the research worker to see the nature of their survey and chose the right research method ( Jennings, 2001 ) . Primary informations aggregation methods chiefly consist of two types: quantitative and qualitative methods ( Finn et al 2000 ) . In order to choose the right primary research method for survey it is of import to understand the differences between the both research methods. Harmonizing to Jennings ( 2001 ) listed the difference between quantitative and qualitative research methods. Where he explained that research attack in quantitative is deductive in nature which means that theories and constructs are already available through the past informations utilizing which research worker conducts a hypothesis to prove these constructs through informations aggregation and analysis. Qualitative research takes a more inductive attack where the research worker develops theories and constructs through observation and brings out thoughts thorough detecting the collected informations instead than predetermined thoughts. Quantitative research undertakes the conjectural testing by perceiver to be nonsubjective to come to a decision with structured, systematic design of the research which can be replicable but whereas qualitative research depends more on the subjective position of the land world and the research seems to be unstructured with recent developing alterations being applied as they emerge during the class. The focal point of the research for a quantitative research is variable when compared qualitative research which depends on specific survey subjects. While choosing participants to carryout the research quantitative research randomly selects the participants but qualitative research chooses its participants with several considerations being specific to them . The representation of informations and findings put forth through quantitative research is numeral in nature which can be statistically analysed with the aid of in writing representation like statistical tabular arraies and graphs. But qualitative research attack represents informations through textual signifier which is more narrative in nature. And in conclusion the determination analysis and decision is merely a representation of the existent universe in instance of quantitative and qualitative research consequence is a piece of life in the existent universe. Quantitative research method Having looked at the assorted differences between the two research methods does non reason that quantitative research method is better than qualitative or frailty versa. Because both have their ain advantages and disadvantages depending upon the type of research and analyze a research worker is set abouting certain phenomenon might be better studied in qualitative and some with quantitative analysis ( Muijs 2004 ) . Veal s ( 1997 ) stated that qualitative survey attack which consists of concentrating on observation of depth interviews does non back up the cause of a survey when the research worker aims to project a common statement of analysis sing big groups of population. Keeping in head the fact that this survey deals with quantifying the several motivational factors for domestic tourer in India and so it would include covering big population groups to seek and measuring their motivational factors. Hence it would be appropriate to use quantitative attack towards the survey would e nable the research worker to convey out the discoveries in the signifier of statistical informations analysis. Questionnaire Survey Nathan birnbaums and Bush ( 2000 ) referred quantitative research to be a study research affecting use of structured inquiries whose responses are predetermined and it involves correspondence of big figure of respondents. Saunders et Al ( 2003 ) highlighted that any sort of research would normally affect some numeral informations that can be utilised to react to the inquiries arise in the research and Veal ( 1997 ) besides stated that quantitative analysis is widely preferred and used research method in touristry and leisure industry to garner single information with aid of a intentional list of inquiries which are put through the study participants. Gillham ( 2000 ) showcased some advantages of utilizing questionnaires stating it could be cost effectual and can salvage a batch of clip as it helps to garner mass sum of information in a limited and short frame of clip. It proves to be more convenient for the anonymously selected study respondents to reply closed complete inquiries str aight off without any colored reaction towards it unlike interviews which can bring on colored sentiments at times during the class of the interview. As the designed questionnaire contains the same set of inquiries repeated for all the respondents to reply so it becomes easier to compare and contrast the responses to buttockss and analyse the consequences and its tendencies. But it is besides necessary to understand the possible reverses which can happen while using this attack to the survey which Gillham ( 2000 ) right pointed out by explicating that while carry oning a study the research worker would frequently hold to cover with certain negative characteristics which could include issues where quality and truth of informations cannon be guaranteed if the questionnaire is non decently designed. As the inquiries should be short and simple for the respondents to understand and answer and sometimes the earnestness of response to the inquiries is besides ever an issue of apprehensiveness. Ryan ( 1995 ) besides stated that it is really indispensable for a research worker to travel through the study procedure really cagily if it is conducted through a questionnaire because one time the responses are collected one can neither mention back to them for understanding their responses nor fabricate or rectify the responses if they have been misinterpreted by the r espondents. So in order to carryout a research edge by clip restraints like placing the assorted motivational factors of domestic touristry in India does urge developing a questionnaire to carry on a study maintaining in head all these possible menaces. So the questionnaire should be carefully studied and design layout should be decently done specifically sing the use of right pick of give voicing before it is distributed for the study. Questionnaire Design, Layout and Pilot Testing Having considered the assorted pros and cons of developing a questionnaire for a study above it is besides really indispensable to carefully layout a design for a questionnaire. It is really of import to reexamine what inquiries will be addressed in the questionnaire. There can be different types of inquiries asked so it is really of import to asses the type of inquiries because the result of information depends on the aggregation of informations ( Brace 2008 ) . Pizam and Ellis ( 1999 ) stated that inquiries obtaining basic profile information signifier a critical portion of the questionnaire along with the other gathered information of the respondent s attitudes and behavior. So the online questionnaire which is developed would besides asses the demographic information of the participants along with others. The questionnaire would dwell of 19 inquiries and would dwell of following subdivisions inquiring assorted inquiries like Personal Information Travel form Motivation beginnings Experience and satisfaction measuring Future activity The designed questionnaire largely consists of closed ended inquiries to assist and enable respondents to react to them rapidly and non devouring much of their valuable clip. Brace ( 2008 ) besides suggested that research workers analyzing behaviour analysis would usually travel for closed ended inquiries and it seems to be a popular option preferred as the respondents have to merely click or choose the boxes to react to the inquiries which leaves least room for mistake and confusion and the informations can be easy assessed subsequently on. Most of the closed inquiries in this survey included different types of inquiry form like checklist, Likert graduated table and attitude graduated table to asses the attitude and behavior of the tourer. And Churchill ( 1999 ) identified coding to be more utile and ready to hand while making questionnaire because if the inquiries are arranged, designed and laid out decently with give voicing taken attention off with pick of replies being represent ed in Numberss and codifications through any computing machine package so it would be really effortless to roll up the informations and analyse with a computing machine coding package. To carryout this study electronic electronic mail was chosen as the most suitable method to study sing the fact that the research worker is far off from the state where the study is traveling to be conducted and besides baring in head the disbursals and clip restraints. Sproull ( 1986 cited Thach 1995 ) stated that electronic study can be good peculiarly in study research and identified four cardinal features of electronic electronic mail which were Speed It much easier and faster to direct questionnaires through electronic mail to any portion of the universe in seconds and therefore the answer would besides be fast once the inquiries are answered. Asynchronous communicating The communicating of message can be sent and received at convenience as it gives an option to the participants to answer at their easiness when they are free. They can at leisure believe and reply the inquiries. And non be tied down to be replied immediately and do them free their valuable clip. No mediators In several instances the mails sent by station or interviews could be rejected or filtered by the helpers and secretaries of the concerned forces so there are more opportunities of mails being straight sent to the concerned individual and they open it straight. But even this is being monitored in recent alterations but there are more opportunities when compared to the other ways sing the fact that it would make faster. Ephemerality Ephemerality explains the fact that an on-line questionnaire can be deleted at any clip with easiness and therefore would hold no hint in the signifier of difficult transcript of it once it is deleted unless person saves and prints out on a paper. So when the respondents complete the study and direct them they can cancel them at their will and make nt necessitate to trouble oneself much about it once it is done unlike the posted mails. Pilot proving the questionnaire is really indispensable before the questionnaire is really distributed amongst the population. Flying trials two cardinal characteristics of a questionnaire that are dependability where the questionnaire is considered to be dependable depending upon the sum of consistence that shows in the responses that are received and cogency where its considered to be valid if the research worker gets the rating right that the questionnaire was originally destined for Brace ( 2008 ) . This helps the research worker to obviously place the jobs related to respondents go forthing out certain inquiries unreciprocated and besides asses the satisfactory response of information for the respondents to understand and reply ( Bryman, 2001 ) . It besides helps in explicating if the respondents understand the dictions and certain footings in the inquiries and if the inquiries have a flow of form, so the sum of clip that is consumed for answering the inquiries and it gives a cl ear image of which attack of informations analysis to carryout one the responses are collected Jennings ( 2001 ) . Hence in order to make the pilot proving the questionnaires were first sent through electronic mail to 10 respondents to seek and look into the quality and understand the responses. Based on the standard responses minor alterations were done to the questionnaire for all right tuning. Sampling Research workers must carryout trying good in progress in the class of research as several facets like clip restraints, money disbursals and the easiness of entree to carryout the study are ever certain reverses and limitations which reoccur. These prevent the research worker to restrict oneself to mensurating analysis of merely a little and compartment representation of a true population and frequently non the entire population ( Cohen et al 2007 ) . In this survey it is virtually impossible to carryout the research across the whole of India with its gigantic population representation alongside its diverse civilization and languages refering to their geographical locations. Hence to do it convenient for the research worker the study was carried out within the boundary of restriction choosing merely one metropolis as the representative. Mumbai metropolis was selected to be the location for choosing sample population as the metropolis is widely popular across the universe in malice of non being the administrative capital metropolis of India. Though the people of Mumbai metropolis entirely does non organize the corporate attitude and behavior of the whole state but this could be considered to be the closest that one can acquire to understanding the behavior of the Population in India sing the restrictions of the research. Datas Analysis The information of this research which is collected with the aid of quantitative research method of questionnaire will be analysed by traveling through the responses received and pulling comparings with the studied literature reappraisal. As Ryan ( 1995 ) suggested that it is really of import to maintain in head the premier purposes and aims of the research while construing the informations through statistical representation. Quantitative research informations analysis is most effectual when it represents assorted variables in the signifier of statistical and numerical projections ( Jennings 2001 ) . Hence this research information is best suited to be analysed with the aid of SPSS computing machine package. Along with this information analysis decisions will be drawn from the secondary information every bit good to acquire an apprehension on the behavioral form and supply a range for farther survey. Having looked at informations analysis methods in this subdivision it is besides ind ispensable to place the assorted restrictions that hinder the research. Restriction of the Research One of the major restriction for this research is the generalization of the India s population as it seems virtually impossible to carryout the study all the throughout the state. Sing the fact that it is a really immense state with a immense population and even with the best attempts with no clip bounds can still non conveying out the true image. Hence the study was restricted to merely Mumbai metropolis. Another major constrain for the research worker was the handiness to information sing domestic touristry in India. There has been really small research done on the facet of domestic touristry in India hence to garner information related to concerned subjects was really hard and limited. Part of the information and information was collected from the authorities publications and several online articles published by assorted research workers. Sing the fact that the research worker is far off from the geographical location of the study being conducted and sing the limited clip and cost effectivity in going to carryout the study in individual would hold been hard. So the study was conducted by e-mailing the questionnaires to the people known to the research worker and at that place by inquiring those corporate members to administer the questionnaire across to their contacts to react. But even the electronic study systems had their portion of jobs as Veal ( 2006 ) pointed out that the studies conducted online through e-mailing the questionnaire have resulted in really hapless response rates in the modern tendency so maintaining in head the less response rate the questionnaire was sent to as many contacts as possible and it succeeded in roll uping 100 responses. Issues associating to the questionnaire design were identified as another restriction as several responses did non react to all the inquiries as it wholly depends on the different educational degrees of apprehension of the respondents which could hold led to misunderstanding and confusion of the inquiries Chapter Summary This chapter presented the purposes of the research to clearly place the assorted aims that are supposed to accomplish. Then it talks about the research methods undertaken in geting past informations and understanding the literature behind the subject through secondary research methods. Besides explicating the primary research methods researcher detailed the different attack towards geting informations aggregation. In order to make that it besides speaks about the questionnaire designing and layout of the inquiries to be asked. Then it highlights the essentialness of pilot proving the prepared questionnaire and so sampling of the study and how the collected information was analysed. Finally it showcases the several restriction of this research that was carefully measured. The undermentioned chapter will show the chief findings and analysis of the informations that was collected from the surveyed questionnaire. Bibliography Cohen, L. , Manion, L. , and Morrison, K. , 2007, Research methods in instruction, 6th erectile dysfunction. London: Routledge. Brace, I. , 2008. Questionnaire Design: How to Plan, Structure and Write Survey Material for Effective Market Research. 2nd Ed. London: Kogan Page [ online ] Available from hypertext transfer protocol: //site.ebrary.com/lib/bournemouth/docDetail.action? docID=10250416 [ Accessed on 20th March 2010 ] Bryman, A. , 2001. Social research methods. New York: Oxford University Press. Burns, A. and Bush, R. ( 2000 ) Marketing research 3rd erectile dysfunction. London: Prentice Hall Churchill, A. ( 1999 ) Marketing Research: Methodological Foundations, 6th erectile dysfunction. Fortworth, TX: Dryden Press. Finn, M. , Elliot-White, M. and Walton, M. , 2000, Tourism A ; Leisure Research Methods: Data aggregation, analysis and reading. Essex: Pearson Gillham, B. , 2000. Developing a questionnaire. London: Continuum. Hakim, C. ( 1982 ) : Secondary Analysis in Social Research: A Guide to Data Sources and Methods with Examples, London, Allen A ; Unwin. Jennings, G. , 2001. Tourism research. Milton: John Wiley A ; Sons Australia, Ltd Muijs, D. , 2004. Making Quantitative Research in Education with SPSS. London: Sage Publications. Available from: hypertext transfer protocol: //site.ebrary.com/lib/bournemouth/docDetail.action? docID=10080884 A ; p00=quantitative % 20research [ Accessed 20th March 2010 ] Ryan, C. , 1995. Researching tourist satisfaction: issues, constructs, jobs. London: Routledge. Saunders, M. , Lewis, P. , Thornhill, A. , 2003. Research Methods for Business Students, 3rd erectile dysfunction, Harlow, Prentice Hall Financial Times. Silverman, D. , 2005. Making Qualitative Research: A practical enchiridion. 2nd erectile dysfunction. London: Sage Thach, L. 1995. Using Electronic Mail to Conduct Survey Research. Educational Technology -Saddle Brook NJ. 35 ( 2 ) , 27 [ online ] Available from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ali.iup.edu/DJT/graduatestudy/PDF/usingelectronicmail.pdf [ Accessed on 25th March 2010 ] Veal, A.J. , 1997. Research methods for leisure and touristry: a practical usher. 2nd erectile dysfunction. London: Financial Times

Compare sex difference and women talk too much Essay

Compare sex difference and women talk too much - Essay Example Conversely, â€Å"Women Talk Too Much† is a piece of art that was authored by Holms. From the article, the author has proved that it is a mythical believe and myth that women tends to talk a lot. From the two articles, there are various similarities and differences between the two essays. The main comparison between â€Å"Sex Differences† and â€Å"Women Talk Too Much† is that in both articles, the authors have tried proving that the manner in which people believe on the sex difference and more so on women is not correct (McGeown, 2012). On the other hand, the main difference between â€Å"Sex Differences† and â€Å"Women Talk Too Much† is based on ways in which the views of the authors are directed to the society. The ideas outlined by the authors are significant for people to develop the society. The authors of both â€Å"Sex Differences† and â€Å"Women Talk Too Much† argue in defending their ideas. Macaulay has used research work in supporting his idea. He started with the research chronology on books that were written by Jespersen way back in 1920. Jespersen book, he mentioned on ways in women were heavily stereotyped based on their use of language and the ways in which they understood their language. Based on the book, he showed the audience that, previously there was this belied that women are used to using easy words. Additionally, they focus especially on the main and central arena of their language. Similarly, men tend to hold the new words with a lot of ease. It was also mentio ned that female counterparts have a less reserve of their vocabularies compared to men. Additionally, he included that women are quick in linguistic and better compared to men. However, according to Macaulay, he believes that this is absolutely stereotype. Conversely, Holmes has used illustrations and examples in proving their ideas to prove who talks a lot

Election Analysis Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Election Analysis Paper - Essay Example While Republicans had focussed their attention on the ailing economy and the proposed universal healthcare insurance taxation program, Democrats seemingly waiting on the little flaws and capitalized on them (Mathes and Presse 1). Perhaps what sold Obama candidature was the fact that he maintained close connection with the average Americans and proposed policies that most appealed to the majority. The importance of the presidential election was that it was going to determine what policies were going to be in force. Those interviewed by various media houses such as CNN had observed that the most pertinent concern for most Americans was the ailing economy which both candidates made promises to resolve once in office. While the Romney team had underplayed the Obama’s second term presidency on grounds that the next four years would be a repeat of the same policies, Obama had focussed on wooing voters that governor Romney promised to solve the problems without revealing his intended working formula (Mathes and Presse 1). Other issues that had played in the presidential race were foreign policy issues and the perceived manipulation of currency by China. Whether these issues were of primary concern to the common citizen, more than the joblessness and the healthcare program, or not, remain debatable. Even so, it emerged that security issues played a significant role in boosting Romney’s bid. Matters such the bombing of the US embassy in Libya were some of the issues that played significant role in the presidential race. This was because the initial intelligence report had blamed the attack on sporadic attacks rather than on terrorism. Therefore, as America went to the ballot in a hot contest of Obama-Biden versus Romney-Ryan, political commentators had observed that the outcome was largely unpredictable although Obama still had marginal points ahead of Romney prior to the elections. The only thing that was certain was that the difference in the outcomes wo uld not be too big for whomever candidate wins. Working with volunteers, Democrats employed the formula of early voting where varied slogans motivating people were twitted and re-twitted. Although both sides invested heavily in advertising, political observers have attributed the success of the Obama presidency to the door-to-door campaigns (Cohen 1). As election results trickled in, the prediction that political analysts had made that the outcomes would be a picture of a hotly contested poll became apparent. Obama managed to emerge triumphant over Romney to become the second democrat after Bill Clinton to win a second term since Second World War. By managing to clinch a total of 65,258,278 popular votes and 332 electoral votes against Romney’s 60,658,920 popular votes and 206 electoral votes, one may observer that Republicans did not fair so badly in the presidential vote although they lost. Again, analysts have observed that the wives of both Obama and Romney also had some contribution to the outcomes with Michelle Obama being the most popular of the presidential aspirants (Horsey 1). Probably one could ask why the elections turned out as it did and what the contributing factors were. One may observe that voters’ decision was likely to have been influenced by a number of factors. Such were issues most pertinent to the electorate as well as those for which their preferred party stood. It is interesting to

Liberal Arts current political controversies Research Paper

Liberal Arts current political controversies - Research Paper Example Simply speaking, if one takes into consideration the ethical, political and strategic issues related to the usage of drones as warfare devices, one simply comes to the conclusion that the drone usage is not only unethical and wrong, but pragmatically speaking, it is also counterproductive. One salient factor that both ethically and practically puts to question the combat usage of drones is the number of civilian deaths that could be attributed to drones (Clodfelter 252). Though the CIA and the military emphatically try to dilute the overall emotional and ethical significance of the civilian deaths caused by drones by labeling these deaths as the ‘collateral damage’, yet, the fact is that a responsible and ethics driven nation like the United States of America simply could not resort to the usage of a technology that has the potential to cause unwanted civilian causalities (Clodfelter 252). The Bureau of Investigative Journalism tends to put the civilian deaths caused by drone strikes between 446 and 978, of which 179 to 209 happened to be children (Matthews 1). There is no denying the fact that the usage of a technology that has the potential to kill innocent children and civilians simply could not be justified by extending any tactical or strategic reason. Besides, the global association of drones with the death of innocent children and civilians jeopardizes the very image and reputation of the United States of America (Brunstetter & Braun 340). The civilian deaths caused by drones make people associate US with arrogance and highhandedness and makes them go against the US (Brunstetter & Braun 341). Thereby this depletion of the nation’s image and the unwanted and unwarranted civilian deaths must immediately be stopped by putting a ban on the usage of drones for tactical strikes. Besides, the drone usage in the light of the civilian causalities is counterproductive as it embarrasses the politicians who have to deal with the ramifications of such blunders and many a times make the non-combatants take the enemy side. The other big factor that puts to question the tactical usage of drones without US is that the drones not only negatively impact the collective moral of the military personnel, but they also hamper the gaining of situational awareness by the forces deployed on the ground (Hazelton 30). Deployment at the forward posts or behind the enemy lines, while evincing a sense of camaraderie with the fellow colleagues and working on the basis of the inputs facilitated by the intelligence agencies and the informers, turns the military personnel into highly motivated and skilled combatants. Besides, the forces deployed on the ground do have the ability to differentiate between the civilians and the enemies and this immensely decreases the scope for collateral damage. The other thing is that an effective military campaign is always based on the situational awareness gained by the forces at the ground level (Hazelton 30). The warriors operating on the frontline have a thorough understanding of the ethical and tactical objectives they aspire to achieve. However, both these objectives are simply curtailed by the usage of drones. The people operating drones from the faraway locations neither tend

Water And The Effects On The Human Body

Water And The Effects On The Human Body Water covered 70% of the earth surface and it is colorless, tasteless and odorless liquid. Water consists of physical and chemical properties. H2O is the chemical formula for water and its formula are one oxygen and two hydrogen. Water is the only natural substance that found in liquid, solid and gas. The boiling point for water is 100Â °C, however the freezing point is 0Â °C. H2O is a necessity for all living things, every living thing on earth need water to survive and it helps human in certain ways. Example like digestion, respiration and etc. Human bodies are made up of 60-65% of water and so water plays an important role to us in our life. The aim of this report is investigate will 8 glasses of water a day gave a better life to people? This study draws on information gathered from various Malaysian and international articles, journals, and World Wide Web sites. Figure 1: Drinking water 2.0 Advantages of drinking water Water is a necessity for all living things in this world and human could only survive in three days without drinking water so it plays an important role throughout our life. Drinking more water not just makes us healthier but to make sure all our organs in our body work smoothly. 2.1 Excretion Water is the solution for maintaining a healthy lifestyle by drinking generous amounts of water every day is essential for good health because it helps our body to cleanse our body toxins out through kidney (Batmanghelidj, n.d). Kidney and livers play an important role in excretion and water helps kidney and livers to function properly by carry away toxins from the human body. 2.2 Perspiration When we having a cold or fever we need more water to standardize our body temperature and water help us to maintain our body temperature (Dawkins Gibson, 2007). When our surrounding temperature is hot, our body will starting to sweat and by sweating we are actually getting rid of unhealthy toxic and waste materials in our body. Sweat itself contains of 99% water, so whenever we starting to sweat a lot we should start rehydrate too as it will lead to hydration if we didnt drink enough water. 2.3 Other bodily functions Water carries away waste, and helps to carry medicines to the proper places in the body. Water helps to cushion your babys ride when you are pregnant and also helps to prevent cramping fatigue during exercise (Dawkins Gibson, 2007). Water keep us away from dry skin and prevent headache (M. Woods, n.d). Water helps to improve physical performance (muscles are 73% water), improve the circulation (blood is 82% water), improve mental function (the brain is 72% water) (Hall, 2004). 2.4 Flushes toxins out of vital organs Water absorbs our bodys waste products and other toxic compounds which then leave the body through the urinary tract (Dr Moonlenburgh 2009). Metabolic wastes are also carried and excreted in a water medium. Drinking plenty of water is one good way to keep the kidneys and bladder in good health (Hall, 2004). Our body needs water to remove toxins and waste, so our body will be healthier. 3.0 Disadvantage of not drinking water Nowadays, people are drinking lesser and lesser water as they claimed they have NO TIME TO DRINK WATER this is because their stressful work in office or homework in school. If a person doesnt drink enough of water, it will effect the humans mental and emotional and then you will have less energy and hard to concentrate compare to your normally do and this symptom is called mild dehydration. 3.1 Constipation Studies shown that low level of chronic dehydration have increased the risk of constipation (and its potential effects, including hemorrhoids and diverticulosis) (Woods, n.d). Lack of water in our diet will cause constipation and stomach acid problems by drinking good amount of water will cure it. Experts said that if a person consume not enough amount of water it will cause indurate to the fasces and constipation problem occur. By drinking enough amount of water will solve the problem of constipation by let the fasces went through smoothly from the intestine. 3.2 Dehydration Dehydration occurs when our body is losing water thorough breathing, sweat and urinates. Furthermore, dehydration can cause body temperature increase and so does increase dizziness (M. Dawkins, J. Gibson, 2007). When we sweat extremely or diarrhea it will lead to dehydration and so by taking enough of fluids can prevent dehydration from happening. 3.3 Dried skin Without adequate water in the body, tissue can not be formed or repaired and so dried skin is formed. Dried skin occurs when our skin is lack of water and not oil, water hydrates our skin and helping the skin to stay young and healthy. Experts claims that human loses one to three quarts of water per day so we need to keep ourselves on track by drinking enough of water to prevent our skin suffer. 3.4 Reduce the risk of bladder cancer Insufficient of fluid intake would increase the risk of bladder, breast and colon cancer (Woods, n.d). When a person dehydrated , the person will have poor blood circulation and failing kidney function soon, as the longer the person dehydrated the risk of having this symptom will happened faster (Dawkins Gibson 2007). A group of doctors claimed that the risk of having a bladder cancer is increasing over the ten years and those men who drank a lot had lower risk of having the bladder cancer (Dr Whitaker, 2000). 4.0 Water habit Water is beneficial for us everyday but due to the polluted environment nowadays even the price of beer are cheaper than a plain water and this causes people around the world would rather drink beer than a plain and tasteless water. The recommended glass of water is eight glasses as our human body consists of 75% water and we need to rehydrate everyday. In fact, we can only survive for three days without drinking water. Water is not only important but it is the way to live a longer and better life. 4.1 Carry a bottle Habit of carry a bottle is not train by one day, it need a long period for a person to carry a bottle whenever the person go out, whether shop, walk or to an activity as Rome was not build in one day also. So those who want a good healthy lifestyle and prevent constipation and other cancer causes start carrying a bottle around with them all day. If you are a workaholic, u should keep a glass of water at your desk and when it is empty fill them up again and keep drinking more. 4.2 Set a reminder The first glass of water everyday morning plays an important role because it will energize our metabolism and rid toxins from our body. If you are a forgetful person use your hand phone alarm or the reminder system to help u out by every thirty minutes drink a glass of water. Setting a reminder the first weeks will not be as easy as Practice makes prefect so we have to remind our self to drink more water for a better life in future. 4.3 Exercise By the word exercise we will know that we will sweat a lot and that means we will lose a lot of water from our body and by exercising it can make us want to drink more water. Experts said that if we are going to exercise, drink the suitable amount of water first so our body wont be affected by having dehydration during our exercise period. 5.0 Types of water Water is perhaps the products that every consumer are using and consumer taking every types of water in a serious matter as we all want to use water that are free from bacteria and harm. Nowadays, nobody drinks from the home tap anymore, and for the good reasons. The quality of the domestic water supply is suspected, and often deficient and dirty. For those looking to enjoy a variety of waters, here is just a sampling of the many different types available (J. Rose, 2007). 5.1 Distilled water Distilled water is a type of water that has been purified. It is often used to clean fragile items, as it has no mineral deposits that could damage the delicate fibers. Distilled water should ideally be nothing but hydrogen and oxygen molecules, with a PH level of 7 and no additional gases, minerals or contaminants. (What is Distilled Water?, n.d). Distilled water helps flushes toxic substances out from our body and by drinking it our body will be healthier and better. The process of distillation is first boil the water to its boiling point and by condensing the steam into another container and there is where we found the pure water. But one of the disadvantage of distilled water is it doesnt consist any minerals in it this is because due to the process of distillation so it would just be a pure water. 5.2 Mineral water Mineral water is said that it consist the most mineral in its water and this type of water is the healthiest among all those water. But those minerals could be naturally or man made. Minerals help us throughout our life by maintaining a better life. Lack of mineral could fall sick or worse. In the 21st century everyone in earth are worried about their own health due to the environment pollution and mineral water nowadays make an important role. Due to the demand of mineral water increase it also increase the numbers of mineral water company too and there is where bottled water came up. Some said mineral water can prevent us from having cramp or joints pain. 5.3 Well water Spring water has many names but is more commonly know as well water. Natural spring water contains of some beneficial minerals that normal filtered water that doesnt have. But well water also can be contaminate and consist of microorganisms that we cant see using our naked eye, chemicals and so do the environment problem that happening nowadays so spring water consist of cons too. Some said that well water tastes much better and is more convenient than bottled water but some said well water are contaminated and its bad health due to the environment problem. 6.0 Conclusion In conclusion, 8 glasses of water a day will bring better life and a healthier lifestyle to a person. Consume more than 8 glasses of water a day will help our human body to flush toxins from the lymph system to body and avoid constipation. Furthermore, experts had said intake of more fluids will reduce the risk of having cancer and sickness. Lastly, water is the most important nutrient in our lives and it will lead us to a longer and better quality life. Based on the reasons above, 8 glasses of water a day will bring a better life to us.

The American Dream in Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller, and The Gre

The American Dream in Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller, and The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald In a majority of literature written in the 20th century, the theme of the ' American Dream" has been a prevalent theme. This dream affects the plot and characters of many novels, and in some books, the intent of the author is to illustrate the reality of the American Dream. However, there is no one definition of the American Dream. Is it the right to pursue your hearts wish, to have freedom to do whatever makes one happy? Or is it the materialistic dream prevalent in the 50's, and portrayed in such movies as Little Shop of Horrors? Or is the American Dream a thought so intangible, it changes in the heart of every person and can never be truly defined? Or is it an 'American' Dream at all, is it simply a human drive to pursue a better life? In the book, The Great Gatsby, by F. Scott Fitzgerald, and the play Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller, the writers portray two completely different literary works which have an amazing connection. Both works are written to illustrate two viewpoints on the American Dream; either the pursuit of happiness, or the pursuit of material wealth. In both literary works, the authors show a comparison between these two visions of the American Dream, and in the end, the authors message is the same; the American dream cannot be a materialistic goal. Or, should not. For many Americans, the American Dream is a 2-door garage in a suburb, but as illustrated in the literary works, this sort of an American Dream leads to unhappiness, depression, and in the case of Willy Loman, suicide. In The Great Gatsby, it is Daisy who has a materialistic dream. She loved Gatsby. When he was a soldier, she loved him, but Gatsby knew he could never marry her, because of class. So, Daisy married Tom Buchanan, a wealthy man, a good looking man, but Daisy did not love him. In the book, Daisy is miserable. She knows Tom is having an affair, and she often cries. She wishes for her daughter to be " a beautiful little fool"( Gatsby 21) so that her daughter will not be smart enough to be unhappy. Daisy loves Gatsby, but she loves her lifestyle. And when she had the decision between the two, she chose her lifestyle, and she will regret her decision time and again. The concept of the American... ...attered, enough so that he could see who his father truly was. Biff had to reevaluate his life, and he came to a realization; " To devote your life to keeping stock, or making phone calls, or selling or buying. To suffer fifty weeks a year for the sake of a two week vacation, when all you want is to be outdoors"( Death 139). Biff came to the conclusion that humans were not meant to work in pursuit of this economic goal, but were meant to work outside. His father could never accept that, and if Willy had, the story would have had a much different ending. The American Dream has no singular definition, but a multitude of interpretations. Yet, in these two completely different literary works, the authors share the same message; the American Dream should not be a materialistic goal, but a goal in pursuit of true, spiritual happiness. This is shown in both Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller, and The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald. Both authors feel very strongly about the issue, as do many other authors writing today, who fear American Economic views could doom the human race to a meaningless existence. With an ending not too dissimilar from Brave New World.

Voluntary Euthanasia Should Be Allowed

Human euthanasia has been a disputable issue over the years. Euthanasia, the act of killing someone painlessly which will directly decide one’s death, is inevitably controversial. Arguments opposing euthanasia usually includes that it is a kind of murder, which can never be allowed. However, euthanasia is not bound to be murder, for it can be categorized into various forms, including passive, active, voluntary and involuntary ones (Bonin, 2012). Among them, voluntary euthanasia is obviously not murder.Voluntary euthanasia, which can be defined as a terminally ill person choosing to end his own life when suffers from severe pain but is mentally competent, should reasonably be legalized. In this essay, two reasons supporting the voluntary euthanasia will be given and two counter arguments will be refuted. Two reasons of why voluntary euthanasia should be legalized can be recognized. Firstly, dying peacefully with dignity is the best choice for the suffering incurables.The person conducted voluntary euthanasia is guaranteed to be terminally ill, which means that he is sure to die soon and can only choose the way to die, the way in extremely pain or the painless way. It is usually better for him to choose to die painlessly. Allowing a person to die peacefully without pain is to respect his life, and he can still keep his last dignity. Otherwise if it is illegal to have voluntary euthanasia, the patient can only be tortured by the insufferable pain, struggling to breathe, wishing to have an immediate relief but still have to wait for a sorrowful death.Secondly, the decision of the patient should be respected. According to the definition, the patient who can be conducted the voluntary euthanasia is mentally competent, which means that he can make his own rational decisions (Chand, 2009). The patient is responsible for his own life, and the decision about death must have been considered seriously. Nobody wants to die if the pain is not extremely unbearable, so when he chooses to die, it means that this choice is certainly the only one he can bear.In such cases, nobody except the patient himself can feel how sorrowful he is to live, and how eager he wants to die. How can people decide for someone when they know nothing about the situation he is in? Thus, nobody can decide whether he should live on or not except the patient himself. The decision of the patient is the only one that counts and matters. If the decision of giving up the treatment can be expected and allowed, why cannot voluntary euthanasia be? There are some counterarguments on this issue which oppose voluntary euthanasia.Firstly, some people claim that doctors should not inflict death (Somerville, 2010). However, when considering voluntary euthanasia, it is not to â€Å"inflict† death, but to make death more bearable when the death is inevitable. It is true that doctors are for healing instead of killing, but when there is no more possibility to heal anymore, to relieve the patients’ pain maybe more meaningful for a doctor as well as for the patients. Secondly, some opponents quoted from the constitution of the USA, which says that everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person (Bonin, 2012).They argue that even if the patient is terminally ill, his right to life should still be protected and he can only die naturally. However, these people forget that the right to life does not mean that a person should be forced to live, even when he suffers from unbearable pain and has no hope to recover. The right to life means that a person has the right to choose the way of the life, including the death. For other forms of euthanasia, such as the involuntary euthanasia, the patient’s right to life may be damaged as the decision of euthanasia may not be made by the patient.However, as for voluntary euthanasia, it is the patient himself who chooses to live or die, which depends only on his own decision. Thus, voluntary euthanasia does not do damages to the patient’s rights. Instead, the legalization of voluntary euthanasia will be beneficial for patients to exercise their â€Å"right to life† better. In conclusion, voluntary euthanasia is suitable to be legalized, because of the dignity of the patients and the respect towards the patients’ own decisions.The legalization of voluntary euthanasia will neither damage people’s rights, nor hurt the doctors. It is fairly reasonable to make it legalized. References: Bonin, A. (2012). Human Euthanasia, The Debate: The Arguments for Both Sides. Retrieved on March 10th, 2013, from http://www. examiner. com/article/human-euthanasia-the-debate-the-arguments-for-both-sides Chand, K. (2009). Why we should make euthanasia legal. Retrieved on March 13th, 2013, from http://www. guardian. co. uk/society/joepublic/2009/jul/01/euthanasia-assisted-s

Days of Terrorism essays

Days of Terrorism essays Violent acts such as bombings, assassinations, and hi-jacking are known to be described as terrorist actions. Terrorism is a growing international problem and governments have had little success to resolve issues in which terrorism is used. September 11, 2001, one of the most important dates I will remember throughout my life. It was morning just as I woke up to get ready for school. I was tired and didnt know what was going on. The television was on and the Chinese news was broadcasting live coverage of what is happening to the World Trade Center. The reporter reported that some terrorists hi-jacked an airplane and crashed into the building. When I first watched the news of this live coverage, I knew something was wrong. The Chinese News does not usually talk about United States news that early in the program. When I arrived at homeroom, a television was on broadcasting the same news. At this point, I got more interested in this topic. Because my first block was social studies and the teacher is my homeroom teacher, she allowed the class to watch the coverage live. Later during the coverage, the program announced that another airplane have crashed into the second tower of the World Trade Center. Shortly a fter the announcement, the bell rang and never thought about it until the very next day when the social studies teacher gave out several newspapers from the Times Colonist. At that time, I knew I should not forget about this incident. A lot of people around the world probably have tuned into a news channel during that day. As war on terrorism continues on, I expect many people will tune in to the news as well. ...

Free Essays on Legality Of Marijuana

The legality of marijuana in the united states is a subject of controversy that can divide houses and friends. It can also help people to bond. I have always noticed that no matter age, race, culture, or popularity, there is always a common ground between users. This common ground is the cannabis itself, and the enjoyment thereof. The actual legalization of cannabis may never happen, but that doesn’t mean people won’t smoke every day between now and then. Beyond that fact, the legalization of cannabis would have many positive effects on our society. The legalization there of would help to lower taxes, boost the economy, decrease drug-related violence, and would help to improve the overall â€Å"mood† of the population. I believe that the government should sell cannabis. The government already grows it to make hemp ropes for the navy. If in the process of harvesting, they stripped the buds from the plants before processing the hemp and made it widely available through out the states, then there would be a drop in prices in such goods, and this would also create a very lucrative income for the government. Also there would be less drug-related violence. Why would people fight over cannabis when you could just go down to the store and buy it yourself? The most common arrest in the United States is simple possession of marijuana. If it were legalized, the state and national governments would spend less money on enforcement and prevention of cannabis possession, sales, and illegal importation. Simply put, stop wasting the tax payers money on something that the government could turn into a source of revenue. Heck, I am sure the government would put a taxation of the sale of cannabis, but there again is another source of revenue, not government spending. If cannabis were legalized, there must be certain requirements met to purchase it. The same principles used with the purchase, possession, and consumption of alcohol. As w... Free Essays on Legality Of Marijuana Free Essays on Legality Of Marijuana The legality of marijuana in the united states is a subject of controversy that can divide houses and friends. It can also help people to bond. I have always noticed that no matter age, race, culture, or popularity, there is always a common ground between users. This common ground is the cannabis itself, and the enjoyment thereof. The actual legalization of cannabis may never happen, but that doesn’t mean people won’t smoke every day between now and then. Beyond that fact, the legalization of cannabis would have many positive effects on our society. The legalization there of would help to lower taxes, boost the economy, decrease drug-related violence, and would help to improve the overall â€Å"mood† of the population. I believe that the government should sell cannabis. The government already grows it to make hemp ropes for the navy. If in the process of harvesting, they stripped the buds from the plants before processing the hemp and made it widely available through out the states, then there would be a drop in prices in such goods, and this would also create a very lucrative income for the government. Also there would be less drug-related violence. Why would people fight over cannabis when you could just go down to the store and buy it yourself? The most common arrest in the United States is simple possession of marijuana. If it were legalized, the state and national governments would spend less money on enforcement and prevention of cannabis possession, sales, and illegal importation. Simply put, stop wasting the tax payers money on something that the government could turn into a source of revenue. Heck, I am sure the government would put a taxation of the sale of cannabis, but there again is another source of revenue, not government spending. If cannabis were legalized, there must be certain requirements met to purchase it. The same principles used with the purchase, possession, and consumption of alcohol. As w...

Writing Course for General Services Corporation Employees Essay

Writing Course for General Services Corporation Employees - Essay Example The paper throws light on General Services Corporation (GSC). In GSC, letters to customers, internal memos and emails are the most common types of written communication. Since GSC is a service company, it needs to constantly be in touch with its customers, and this makes external communication very important. There is also a lot of written communication that goes on between different departments. Most of this internal communication is normally in the form of e-mails and memos. Employees in the marketing department also have to do a lot of proposal writing for the purposes of getting more customers for the company. With all this writing that employees have to do every now and then, it is important to upgrade their writing skills so as to make the communication process easier and more efficient. The employees should receive training not only how to write well, but also how to write creatively. For instance, when writing internal memos and emails, most employees normally do not really k now how to bring out the point they want to make. This makes their written communication seem pointless, which can be quite frustrating for both the receiver and sender. However, some employees are quite good at communicating through whatever form of written communication they use. For instance, when one states his message right at the beginning instead of beating around the bush, then it is likely that whoever is reading the letter or memo will take whatever is in it with the seriousness it deserves.

Genetically modified animals Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Genetically modified animals - Research Paper Example It is imperative to modify the DNA of the germ line cells during the process of creating genetically modified animals. By modifying the DNA of germline cells, it becomes easier for the modified DNA to be inheritable (Starr, Evers, & Starr, 2013). While introducing the foreign DNA, it is necessary to consider only those that have the capacity to differentiate into different cells of an adult animal. Besides, the embryonic stem (ES) cells and cells of embryos at very early stages might also be considered for the process of creating genetically modified animals. Even though such cells are post-zygotic, they clearly represent a development phase characterized by incomplete separation of the germline and the soma (Starr, Evers, & Starr, 2013). In essence, such cells usually have the capacity to give rise to both the germline and somatic cells. Apparently, a transgenic animal is normally produced when a foreign DNA molecule is introduced into the cell of an animal through artificial means. The transgene (the foreign DNA molecule) may contain just one or several genes. The transgenic animal produced upon inserting a transgene into the already fertilized cells or oocyte from the early embryo, will be able to transmit the foreign DNA in its germline (Starr, Evers, & Starr, 2013). ... Incidentally, gene targeting has only been possible in mice while efforts to employ it in other mammals have proven futile (Forman, 2010). The design of several new animal of human disease has been necessitated by the ability of the transgenic mice to perform specific changes in a prearranged or predetermined gene via gene targeting. In addition, other experimental approach that involves genetic manipulation of various animal species has highly influenced the genetic engineering procedure (Forman, 2010). The somatic cell nuclear transfer procedure has ushered in a new era in mammalian genetics. For the first time in history, the procedure approved the cloning of an adult mammal. Social and Ethical Implications Various social groups have come out as the strongest opponents of the efforts to adopt the genetically modified animals. For example, different religious groups consider GMOs as a gross violation of the fundamental tenets that have kept society moving (Nelson 2001). Incidentall y, many of the religious faiths believe in creation. However, a scenario where man seems to have the powers to create or even modify an animal generally violates the values, ethics, and morals associated with the society. Today, most scientists are finding it much easier to interbreed and genetically manipulate the organism following the discovery of DNA. In essence, biomedical scientists can now build animals at the microscopic level (Nelson 2001). This scenario goes against Christian or even the Islamic faith as they always believe the power to create organisms is a reserve of the Supreme Being. On social grounds, vets now find it easier and even economical to treat